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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" >Sex and gender distinction</h1>
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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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<div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Differentiation between sex, physical characteristics of an individual, from gender, one's behaviour or identity</div>
<p>
The <b>distinction between sex and gender</b> differentiates a person's <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a> (the anatomy of an individual's <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">reproductive system</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristic" title="Secondary sex characteristic">secondary sex characteristics</a>) from that person's <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, which can refer to either social roles based on the sex of the person (<a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender role</a>) or personal identification of one's own gender based on an internal awareness (<a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Virginia_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virginia-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> In some circumstances, an individual's <a href="/wiki/Assigned_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Assigned sex">assigned sex</a> and gender do not align, and the person may be <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Virginia_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virginia-1">[1]</a></sup> In other cases, an individual may have biological <a href="/wiki/Sex_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex characteristics">sex characteristics</a> that complicate sex assignment, and the person may be <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a>.
</p><p>In ordinary speech, <i>sex</i> and <i>gender</i> are often used interchangeably.<sup id="cite_ref-udry_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udry-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haig_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig-6">[6]</a></sup> Some dictionaries and academic disciplines give them different definitions while others do not. Some languages, such as German or Finnish, have no separate words for sex and gender, and the distinction has to be made through context.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sexologist</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a> introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role in 1955. Before his work, academic use of the word <i>gender</i> was mostly confined to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical categories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-udry2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udry2-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haig2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig2-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>Among scientists, the term <i>sex differences</i> (as compared to <i>gender differences</i>) is typically applied to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexually dimorphic</a> traits that are hypothesized to be evolved consequences of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mealey,_L._2000_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mealey,_L._2000-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geary,_D._C._2009_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geary,_D._C._2009-10">[10]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Sex"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Sex</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Gender"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Gender</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#History_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Distinction_in_linguistics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Distinction in linguistics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#West_and_Zimmerman's_"Doing_Gender""><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">West and Zimmerman's "Doing Gender"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Criticism_of_the_"sex_difference"_versus_"gender_difference"_distinction"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism of the "sex difference" versus "gender difference" distinction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Transgender_and_genderqueer"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Transgender and genderqueer</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Feminism"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Feminism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#General"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">General</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Limitations"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Limitations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sex">Sex</span></h2>
<p><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a>, or the size differences of <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> (sex cells), is the defining feature of the two sexes. By definition, males have small, mobile gametes (<a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>); females have large and generally immobile gametes (<a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ova</a> or eggs).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> In humans, typical male or female <a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">sexual differentiation</a> includes the presence or absence of a <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a>, the type of <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a>), the balance of <a href="/wiki/Sex_hormone" title="Sex hormone">sex hormones</a> (<a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">internal reproductive anatomy</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prostate_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostate gland">prostate gland</a>), and the external genitalia (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Penis" title="Penis">penis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">vulva</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-KnoxSchacht2011_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KnoxSchacht2011-13">[13]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raveenthiran2017_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raveenthiran2017-14">[14]</a></sup> People with mixed sex factors are <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a>. People whose internal psychological experience differs from their <a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">assigned sex</a> are <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">transsexual</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">non-binary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CDCTerms_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDCTerms-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>The consensus among scientists is that all behaviors are <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a>—complex interactions of both biology and environment—and thus <a href="/wiki/Nature_vs._nurture" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature vs. nurture">nature vs. nurture</a> is a misleading categorization.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> The term <i>sex differences</i> is typically applied to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexually dimorphic</a> traits that are hypothesized to be evolved consequences of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>. For example, the human "sex difference" in height is a consequence of sexual selection, while the "gender difference" typically seen in head hair length (women with longer hair) is not.<sup id="cite_ref-Mealey,_L._2000_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mealey,_L._2000-9">[9]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geary,_D._C._2009_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geary,_D._C._2009-10">[10]</a></sup> Scientific research shows an individual's sex influences his or her behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
</p><p><i>Sex</i> is annotated as different from <i>gender</i> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, where it says <i>sex</i> "tends now to refer to biological differences".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) similarly states that "'sex' refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women" and that "'male' and 'female' are sex categories".<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">American Heritage Dictionary</a></i> (5th ed.), however, lists <i>sex</i> as both "Either of the two divisions, designated female and male, by which most organisms are classified on the basis of their reproductive organs and functions" and "One's identity as either female or male", among other definitions.<sup id="cite_ref-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h3>
<p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_W._Laqueur" title="Thomas W. Laqueur">Thomas W. Laqueur</a> suggests that from the Renaissance to the 18th century, there was a prevailing inclination among doctors towards the existence of only one biological sex (the <a href="/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories" title="One-sex and two-sex theories">one-sex theory</a>, that women and men had the same fundamental reproductive structure).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a>, this view persisted into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> Laqueur asserts that even at its peak, the one-sex model was supported among highly educated Europeans but is not known to have been a popular view nor one entirely agreed upon by doctors who treated the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> Sex and gender took center stage in America in the time of wars, when women had to work and men were at war.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Gender">Gender</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></div><p>
In the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>, <i>gender</i> is defined as, "[i]n mod[ern] (esp[ecially] feminist) use, a euphemism for the sex of a human being, often intended to emphasize the social and cultural, as opposed to the biological, distinctions between the sexes", with the earliest example cited being from 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> The <i>American Heritage Dictionary</i> (5th edition), in addition to defining gender the same way that it defines biological sex, also states that <i>gender</i> may be defined by identity as "neither entirely female nor entirely male"; its <i>Usage Note</i> adds:</p><blockquote><p>Some people maintain that the word <i>sex</i> should be reserved for reference to the biological aspects of being male or female or to sexual activity, and that the word <i>gender</i> should be used only to refer to sociocultural roles. ... In some situations this distinction avoids ambiguity, as in <i>gender research</i>, which is clear in a way that <i>sex research</i> is not. The distinction can be problematic, however. Linguistically, there isn't any real difference between <i>gender bias</i> and <i>sex bias</i>, and it may seem contrived to insist that <i>sex</i> is incorrect in this instance.<sup id="cite_ref-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed-25">[25]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>A working definition in use by the World Health Organization for its work is that "'[g]ender' refers to the <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">socially constructed</a> roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women" and that "'masculine' and 'feminine' are gender categories."<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-24">[24]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) used to use <i>gender</i> instead of <i>sex</i> when referring to physiological differences between male and female organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup> In 2011, they reversed their position on this and began using <i>sex </i>as the biological classification and <i>gender</i> as "a person's self representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></sup> <i>Gender</i> is also now commonly used even to refer to the physiology of non-human animals, without any implication of social gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-haig_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/GLAAD" title="GLAAD">GLAAD</a> (formerly the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation) makes a distinction between sex and gender in their most recent Media Reference Guide: Sex is "the classification of people as male or female" at birth, based on bodily characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive organs, and genitalia. Gender identity is "one's internal, personal sense of being a man or woman (or a boy or a girl)".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">feminist philosophers</a> maintain that gender is totally undetermined by sex. See, for example, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dialectic_of_Sex" title="The Dialectic of Sex">The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution</a></i>, a widely influential feminist text.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p><p>The case of <a href="/wiki/David_Reimer" title="David Reimer">David Reimer</a>, who was, according to studies published by <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a>, raised as a girl after a botched circumcision, was described in the book <i>As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl</i>. Reimer was in fact not comfortable as a girl and later changed gender identity back to male when discovered the truth of his surgery. He eventually committed suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History_2">History</span></h3>
<p>Gender in the sense of social and behavioral distinctions, according to archaeological evidence, arose "at least by some 30,000 years ago".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup> More evidence was found as of "26,000 years ago",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> at least at the archeological site <a href="/wiki/Doln%C3%AD_V%C4%9Bstonice_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolní Věstonice (archaeology)">Dolní Věstonice I</a> and others, in what is now the Czech Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> This is during the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> time period.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
</p><p>The historic meaning of <i>gender</i>, ultimately derived from Latin <i>genus</i>, was of "kind" or "variety". By the 20th century, this meaning was obsolete, and the only formal use of <i>gender</i> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">was in grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-udry_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udry-5">[5]</a></sup> This changed in the early 1970s when the work of <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a>, particularly the popular college textbook <i>Man & Woman, Boy & Girl</i>, was embraced by <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a>. This meaning of <i>gender</i> is now prevalent in the social sciences, although in many other contexts, <i>gender</i> includes <i>sex</i> or replaces it.<sup id="cite_ref-haig_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig-6">[6]</a></sup> Gender was first only used in languages to describe the feminine and masculine words, up until around the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Distinction_in_linguistics">Distinction in linguistics</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Language_and_gender" title="Language and gender">Language and gender</a></div>
<p>Since the social sciences now distinguish between biologically defined <i>sex</i> and socially constructed <i>gender</i>, the term <i>gender</i> is now also sometimes used by linguists to refer to social gender as well as grammatical gender. Traditionally, however, a distinction has been made by linguists between <i>sex</i> and <i>gender</i>, where <i>sex</i> refers primarily to the attributes of real-world entities – the relevant extralinguistic attributes being, for instance, male, female, non-personal, and indeterminate sex – and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> refers to a category, such as masculine, feminine, and neuter (often based on sex, but not exclusively so in all languages), that determines the <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> between nouns of different genders and associated words, such as articles and adjectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender-42">[42]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield_on_grammatical_gender_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield_on_grammatical_gender-43">[43]</a></sup>
</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/A_Comprehensive_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language">A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</a></i>, for instance, states <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By GENDER is meant a grammatical classification of nouns, pronouns, or other words in the noun phrase according to certain meaning-related distinctions, especially a distinction related to the sex of the referent.<sup id="cite_ref-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender-44">[44]</a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Thus German, for instance, has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns referring to people and animals of known sex are <i>generally</i> referred to by nouns with the equivalent gender. Thus <i>Mann</i> (meaning man) is masculine and is associated with a masculine definite article to give <i>der Mann</i>, while <i>Frau</i> (meaning woman) is feminine and is associated with a feminine definite article to give <i>die Frau</i>. However the words for inanimate objects are commonly masculine (e.g. <i>der Tisch</i>, the table) or feminine (<i>die Armbanduhr</i>, the watch), and grammatical gender can diverge from biological sex; for instance the feminine noun <i>[die] Person</i> refers to a person of either sex, and the neuter noun <i>[das] Mädchen</i> means "the girl".
</p><p>In modern English, there is no true grammatical gender in this sense,<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender-42">[42]</a></sup> though the differentiation, for instance, between the pronouns "he" and "she", which in English refers to a difference in sex (or social gender), is sometimes referred to as a gender distinction. <i>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</i>, for instance, refers to the semantically based "covert" gender (e.g. male and female, not masculine and feminine) of English nouns, as opposed to the "overt" gender of some English pronouns; this yields <i>nine</i> gender classes: male, female, dual, common, collective, higher male animal, higher female animal, lower animal, and inanimate, and these semantic gender classes affect the possible choices of pronoun for coreference to the real-life entity, e.g. <i>who</i> and <i>he</i> for <i>brother</i> but <i>which</i> and <i>it</i> or <i>she</i> for <i>cow</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender-44">[44]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="West_and_Zimmerman.27s_.22Doing_Gender.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="West_and_Zimmerman's_"Doing_Gender"">West and Zimmerman's "Doing Gender"</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Doing_gender" title="Doing gender">Doing gender</a></div>
<p>Used primarily in sociology and gender studies, "<i><a href="/wiki/Doing_gender" title="Doing gender">doing gender</a>"</i> is the socially constructed performance which takes place during routine human interactions, rather than as a set of essentialized qualities based on one's biological sex.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup> The term first appeared in Candace West and Don Zimmerman’s article "Doing Gender", published in the peer-reviewed journal, <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender & Society">Gender and Society</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jurik_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jurik-46">[46]</a></sup> Originally written in 1977 but not published until 1987,<sup id="cite_ref-wz_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wz-47">[47]</a></sup> "Doing Gender" is the most cited article published in <i>Gender and Society</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jurik_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jurik-46">[46]</a></sup>
</p><p>West and Zimmerman state that to understand gender as activity, it is important to differentiate between sex, sex category, and gender.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>127</span></sup> They say that sex refers to the socially agreed upon specifications that establish one as male or female; sex is most often based on an individual's genitalia, or even their chromosomal typing before birth.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup> They consider sex categories to be dichotomous, and that the person is placed in a sex category by exhibiting qualities exclusive to one category or the other. During most interactions, others situate a person's sex by identifying their sex category; however, they believe that a person's sex need not align with their sex category.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup> West and Zimmerman maintain that the sex category is "established and sustained by the socially required identificatory displays that proclaim one’s membership in one or the other category".<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>127</span></sup> Gender is the performance of attitudes and actions that are considered socially acceptable for one's sex category.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>127</span></sup>
</p><p>West and Zimmerman suggested that the interactional process of <i>doing gender</i>, combined with socially agreed upon gender expectations, holds individuals accountable for their gender performances.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup> They also believe that while "doing gender" appropriately strengthens and promotes social structures based on the gender <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomy</a>, it inappropriately does not call into question these same social structures; only the individual actor is questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup> The concept of "doing gender" recognizes that gender both structures human interactions and is created through them.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_45-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="Criticism_of_the_.22sex_difference.22_versus_.22gender_difference.22_distinction"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism_of_the_"sex_difference"_versus_"gender_difference"_distinction">Criticism of the "sex difference" versus "gender difference" distinction</span></h2>
<p>The current distinction between the terms <i>sex difference</i> versus <i>gender difference</i> has been criticized as misleading and counterproductive. These terms suggest that the behavior <i>of an individual</i> can be partitioned into separate biological and cultural factors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (May 2020)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> (However, behavioral differences between individuals can be statistically partitioned, as studied by <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral genetics">behavioral genetics</a>.) Instead, all behaviors are phenotypes—a complex interweaving of both nature and nurture.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Diane_F._Halpern" title="Diane F. Halpern">Diane Halpern</a>, in her book <i><a href="/wiki/Sex_Differences_in_Cognitive_Abilities" title="Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities">Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities</a>,</i> argued problems with <i>sex</i> vs. <i>gender</i> terminology:</p><blockquote><p>I cannot argue (in this book) that nature and nurture are inseparable and then... use different terms to refer to each class of variables. The ... biological manifestations of sex are confounded with psychosocial variables.... The use of different terms to label these two types of contributions to human existence seemed inappropriate in light of the biopsychosocial position I have taken.</p></blockquote><p>She quotes <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a>'s summary of the problems with the terms sex and gender: "Part of it is a new prissiness—many people today are as squeamish about sexual dimorphism as the Victorians were about sex. But part of it is a limitation of the English language. The word 'sex' refers ambiguously to copulation and to sexual dimorphism..."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> Richard Lippa writes in <i>Gender, Nature and Nurture</i> that:<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Some researchers have argued that the word <i>sex</i> should be used to refer to (biological differences), whereas the word <i>gender</i> should be used to refer to (cultural differences). However, it is not at all clear the degree to which the differences between males and females are due to biological factors versus learned and cultural factors. Furthermore, indiscriminate use of the word <i>gender</i> tends to obscure the distinction between two different topics: (a) differences between males and females, and (b) individual differences in maleness and femaleness that occur within each sex.</p></blockquote><p>It has been suggested that more useful distinctions to make would be whether a behavioral difference between the sexes is first due to an evolved <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>, then, if so, whether the adaptation is sexually dimorphic (different) or sexually monomorphic (the same in both sexes). The term <i>sex difference</i> could then be re-defined as between-sex differences that are manifestations of a sexually dimorphic adaptation (which is how many scientists use the term),<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> while the term <i>gender difference</i> could be re-defined as due to differential socialization between the sexes of a monomorphic adaptation or byproduct. For example, greater male propensity toward physical aggression and risk taking would be termed a "sex difference;" the generally longer head hair length of females would be termed a "gender difference".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup>
</p><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Transgender_and_genderqueer">Transgender and genderqueer</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">Genderqueer</a></div>
<p>Transgender people experience a mismatch between their <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">gender expression</a>, and their <a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">assigned sex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Altilio_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Altilio-54">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Berg-Weger_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berg-Weger-56">[56]</a></sup> Transgender people are sometimes called <i><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">transsexual</a></i> if they desire medical assistance to <a href="/wiki/Transitioning_(transgender)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitioning (transgender)">transition</a> from one sex to another.
</p><p><i>Transgender</i> is also an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella term</a>: in addition to including people whose gender identity is the <i>opposite</i> of their assigned sex (<a href="/wiki/Trans_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans men">trans men</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trans_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans women">trans women</a>), it may include people who are not exclusively masculine or feminine (e.g. people who are <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">genderqueer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-binary">non-binary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bigender" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigender">bigender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pangender" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangender">pangender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genderfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderfluid">genderfluid</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Agender" class="mw-redirect" title="Agender">agender</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-55">[55]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-glaad.org_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glaad.org-57">[57]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bilodeau_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bilodeau-58">[58]</a></sup> Other definitions of <i>transgender</i> also include people who belong to a <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third gender</a>, or conceptualize transgender people as a third gender.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryker3G_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryker3G-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chrisler_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chrisler-60">[60]</a></sup> Infrequently, the term <i>transgender</i> is defined very broadly to include <a href="/wiki/Cross-dresser" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-dresser">cross-dressers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReisnerEtAl_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReisnerEtAl-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Feminism">Feminism</span></h2>
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_transgender_topics" title="Feminist views on transgender topics">Feminist views on transgender topics</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General">General</span></h3>
<p>Many <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminists</a> consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or cultural construction. For example, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lynda_Birke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lynda Birke (page does not exist)">Lynda Birke</a>, a feminist biologist, states that "'biology' is not seen as something which might change."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> However, the sex/gender distinction, also known as the Standard Model of Sex/Gender, is criticized by feminists who believe that there is undue emphasis placed on sex being a biological aspect, something that is fixed, natural, unchanging, and consisting of a male/female dichotomy. They believe the distinction fails to recognize anything outside the strictly male/female dichotomy and that it creates a barrier between those that fit as 'usual' and those that are 'unusual'. In order to prove that sex is not only limited to two categories <a href="/wiki/Anne_Fausto-Sterling" title="Anne Fausto-Sterling">Anne Fausto-Sterling</a>'s <i>Sexing the Body</i> addresses the birth of children who are intersex. In this case, the standard model (sex/gender distinction) is seen as incorrect with regard to its notion that there are only two sexes, male and female. This is because "complete maleness and complete femaleness represent the extreme ends of a spectrum of possible body types."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> In other words, Fausto-Sterling argues that there are multitudes of sexes in between the two extremes of male and female.
</p><p>Rather than viewing sex as a biological construct, there are feminists who accept both sex and gender as a social construct. According to the <a href="/wiki/Intersex_Society_of_North_America" title="Intersex Society of North America">Intersex Society of North America</a>, "nature doesn't decide where the category of 'male' ends and the category of 'intersex' begins, or where the category of 'intersex' ends and the category of 'female' begins. Humans decide. Humans (today, typically doctors) decide how small a penis has to be, or how unusual a combination of parts has to be, before it counts as intersex."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> Fausto-Sterling believes that sex is socially constructed because nature does not decide on who is seen as a male or female physically. Rather, doctors decide what seems to be a "natural" sex for the inhabitants of society. In addition, the gender, behavior, actions, and appearance of males/females is also seen as socially constructed because codes of femininity and masculinity are chosen and deemed fit by society for societal usage.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Limitations">Limitations</span></h3>
<p>Some feminists go further and argue that neither sex nor gender are strictly binary concepts. <a href="/wiki/Judith_Lorber" title="Judith Lorber">Judith Lorber</a>, for instance, has stated that many conventional indicators of sex are not sufficient to demarcate male from female. For example, not all women lactate, while some men do.<sup id="cite_ref-lorber_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lorber-65">[65]</a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Kessler" title="Suzanne Kessler">Suzanne Kessler</a>, in a 1990 survey of medical specialists in pediatric intersexuality, found out that when a child was born with XY chromosomes but ambiguous genitalia, its sex was often determined according to the size of its penis.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> Thus, even if the sex/gender distinction holds, Lorber and Kessler suggest that the dichotomies of female/male and masculine/feminine are not themselves exhaustive. Lorber writes, "My perspective goes beyond accepted feminist views that gender is a cultural overlay that modifies physiological sex differences ... I am arguing that bodies differ in many ways physiologically, but they are completely transformed by social practices to fit into the salient categories of a society, the most pervasive of which are 'female' and 'male' and 'women' and 'men.'"<sup id="cite_ref-lorber_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lorber-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p><p>Moreover, Lorber has alleged that there exists more diversity within the individual categories of sex and gender—female/male and feminine/masculine, respectively—than between them.<sup id="cite_ref-lorber_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lorber-65">[65]</a></sup> Hence, her fundamental claim is that both sex and gender are social constructions, rather than <a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">natural kinds</a>.
</p><p>A comparable view has been advanced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Linda_Zerilli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Linda Zerilli (page does not exist)">Linda Zerilli</a>, who writes regarding <a href="/wiki/Monique_Wittig" title="Monique Wittig">Monique Wittig</a>, that she is "critical of the sex/gender dichotomy in much feminist theory because such a dichotomy leaves unquestioned the belief that there is a 'core of nature which resists examination, a relationship excluded from the social in the analysis—a relationship whose characteristic is ineluctability in culture, as well as in nature, and which is the heterosexual relationship.'"<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> also criticizes the sex/gender distinction. Discussing sex as biological fact causes sex to appear natural and politically neutral. However, she argues that "the ostensibly natural facts of sex [are] discursively produced in the service of other political and social interests." Butler concludes, "If the immutable character of sex is contested, perhaps this construct called 'sex' is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gender_polarization" title="Gender polarization">Gender polarization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences in psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stereotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotyping">Stereotyping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis, D., & Kaufer, D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/31233/title/Beyond-Nature-vs--Nurture/">Beyond Nature vs. Nurture. Beyond Nature vs. Nurture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104094323/http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view%2FarticleNo%2F31233%2Ftitle%2FBeyond-Nature-vs--Nurture%2F">Archived</a> 2014-01-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Scientist, October 1, 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ridley, M. (2004). The Agile Gene: How Nature Turns on Nurture. NY: Harper Perennial</span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haier, Richard J, Rex E Jung, and others, 'The Neuroanatomy of General Intelligence: Sex Matters', in <i>NeuroImage</i>, vol. 25 (2005): 320–327. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090126190056/http://uit.no/getfile.php?PageId=1935&FileId=467">[1]</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physorg.com/news122122203.html">"Sex differences in the brain's serotonin system"</a>. Physorg.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110817104637/http://www.physorg.com/news122122203.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sex+differences+in+the+brain%27s+serotonin+system&rft.pub=Physorg.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews122122203.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/health/060419_brain_wiring.html">"Emotional Wiring Different in Men and Women"</a>. LiveScience. 2006-04-19. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110817104638/http://www.livescience.com/health/060419_brain_wiring.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-08-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-04-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Emotional+Wiring+Different+in+Men+and+Women&rft.pub=LiveScience&rft.date=2006-04-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2Fhealth%2F060419_brain_wiring.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFrederikse_MELu_AAylward_EBarta_P1999" class="citation journal cs1">Frederikse ME; Lu A; Aylward E; Barta P; Pearlson G (December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10601007">"Sex differences in the inferior parietal lobule"</a>. <i>Cerebral Cortex</i>. <b>9</b> (8): 896–901. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcercor%2F9.8.896">10.1093/cercor/9.8.896</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10601007">10601007</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20120711004717/http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10601007">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-07-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cerebral+Cortex&rft.atitle=Sex+differences+in+the+inferior+parietal+lobule&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=896-901&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcercor%2F9.8.896&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10601007&rft.au=Frederikse+ME&rft.au=Lu+A&rft.au=Aylward+E&rft.au=Barta+P&rft.au=Pearlson+G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcercor.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D10601007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Women Have Greater Density of Neurons in Posterior Temporal Cortex</i> /Sandra Wittelson / Journal of Neuroscience #15 (1995).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50221203?query_type=word&queryword=sex&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=1&search_id=a4MJ-RwfyiP-2884&hilite=50221203"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> (draft revision (online) Jun., 2010)</a>, as accessed Aug. 22, 2010, <i>sex</i>, noun 1, sense 2a.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-WHO-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/"><i>What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"?</i> (World Health Organization (WHO > Programmes and Projects > Gender, Women and Health))</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140908003355/http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/">Archived</a> 2014-09-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, as accessed Aug. 24, 2010 (no author or date & boldfacing omitted).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=sex">"The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Sex"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131018005502/http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=sex">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-10-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-06-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+entry%3A+Sex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dsex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span><i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i> (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 5th ed. 2011, <i>sex</i>, senses 2a and 4, accessed Jun 10, 2013</span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lacqueur, Thomas Walter, <i>Making Sex: Body and Gender From the Greeks to Freud</i> (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univ. Press, 1st Harvard Univ. Press pbk. ed. [5th printing?] 1992 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-54355-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-54355-6">0-674-54355-6</a>), © 1990), p. 134 (author prof. history Univ. Calif., Berkeley).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laqueur, Thomas, <i>Making Sex</i>, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. [149] (italics added).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laqueur, Thomas, <i>Making Sex</i>, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 150–151.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laqueur, Thomas, <i>Making Sex</i>, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 68 & 135.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLindsey1997" class="citation book cs1">Lindsey, Linda. L (1997). <i>Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective</i>. New Jersey: Upper Saddie River. pp. 365–435. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0135336212" title="Special:BookSources/978-0135336212"><bdi>978-0135336212</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+Roles%3A+A+Sociological+Perspective&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=365-435&rft.pub=Upper+Saddie+River&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0135336212&rft.aulast=Lindsey&rft.aufirst=Linda.+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50093521?query_type=word&queryword=gender&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=1&search_id=a4MJ-mHKT13-2771&hilite=50093521"><i>Oxford English Dictionary</i> (2d ed. (online) 1989)</a>, as accessed Aug. 22, 2010, <i>gender</i>, noun, sense 3b.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170913082514/https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/58fr39406.htm">"Guideline for the Study and Evaluation of Gender Differences in the Clinical Evaluation of Drugs"</a>. <i>hhs.gov</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/58fr39406.htm">the original</a> on 13 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hhs.gov&rft.atitle=Guideline+for+the+Study+and+Evaluation+of+Gender+Differences+in+the+Clinical+Evaluation+of+Drugs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fohrp%2Fhumansubjects%2Fguidance%2F58fr39406.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/deviceregulationandguidance/guidancedocuments/ucm283453.htm">"Draft Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff Evaluation of Sex Differences in Medical Device Clinical Studies"</a>. <i>U.S. Food and Drug Administration</i>. December 19, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140809152800/https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/DeviceRegulationandGuidance/GuidanceDocuments/ucm283453.htm">Archived</a> from the original on August 9, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft.atitle=Draft+Guidance+for+Industry+and+Food+and+Drug+Administration+Staff+Evaluation+of+Sex+Differences+in+Medical+Device+Clinical+Studies&rft.date=2011-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fmedicaldevices%2Fdeviceregulationandguidance%2Fguidancedocuments%2Fucm283453.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender">‘’GLAAD Media Reference Guide, 8th Edition. Transgender Glossary of Terms”</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/689BChG1X?url=http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender">Archived</a> 2012-06-03 at <a href="/wiki/WebCite" title="WebCite">WebCite</a>, ‘’<a href="/wiki/GLAAD" title="GLAAD">GLAAD</a>’’, USA, May 2010. Retrieved on 2011-03-01.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benewick, Robert and Green, Philip, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oWYbQkVyGMcC&pg=PA84&dq=Shulamith+Firestone&as_brr=3&cd=5#v=onepage&q=Shulamith%20Firestone&f=false">Shulamith Firestone 1945–</a>, <i>The Routledge dictionary of twentieth-century political thinkers</i> (2nd Edition), Routledge, 1998, pp. 84-86. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09623-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09623-5">0-415-09623-5</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosario, Vernon. 2009. "The New Science of Intersex" <i>The Gay & Lesbian Review</i></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adovasio, J. M., Olga Soffer, & Jake Page, <i>The Invisible Sex: Uncovering the True Roles of Women in Prehistory</i> (Smithsonian Books & Collins (HarperCollinsPublishers), 1st Smithsonian Books ed. 2007 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-117091-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-117091-1">978-0-06-117091-1</a>)), p. [277].</span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adovasio, J. M., <i>et al.</i>, <i>The Invisible Sex</i>, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 170 & see pp. 185–186.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adovasio, J. M., <i>et al.</i>, <i>The Invisible Sex</i>, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. [169].</span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRichard,_pennyJessica_Munna2003" class="citation book cs1">Richard, penny & Jessica Munna (2003). <i>Gender, power and privilege in modern Europe</i>. Pearson/ Longman. p. 221.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender%2C+power+and+privilege+in+modern+Europe&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Pearson%2F+Longman&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Richard%2C+penny&rft.au=Jessica+Munna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMikkola2017" class="citation cs2">Mikkola, Mari (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/feminism-gender/">"Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Winter 2017 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-07</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Perspectives+on+Sex+and+Gender&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2017&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Mikkola&rft.aufirst=Mari&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2017%2Fentries%2Ffeminism-gender%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Huddleston" title="Rodney Huddleston">Huddleston, Rodney</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Pullum, Geoffrey</a> (2002). <i>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</i>. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 484–486. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43146-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43146-0"><bdi>978-0-521-43146-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pages=484-486&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43146-0&rft.aulast=Huddleston&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft.au=Pullum%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Butterfield_on_grammatical_gender-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Butterfield_on_grammatical_gender_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFowler2015" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, Henry Watson (2015). <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Butterfield" title="Jeremy Butterfield">Butterfield, Jeremy</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Fowler%27s_Dictionary_of_Modern_English_Usage" class="mw-redirect" title="Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage"><i>Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage</i><span></span><i></i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966135-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-966135-0"><bdi>978-0-19-966135-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fowler%27s+Dictionary+of+Modern+English+Usage&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-966135-0&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Henry+Watson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFQuirkGreenbaumLeechSvartvik1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Quirk" title="Randolph Quirk">Quirk, Randolph</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Greenbaum" title="Sidney Greenbaum">Greenbaum, Sidney</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Leech" title="Geoffrey Leech">Leech, Geoffrey</a>; Svartvik, Jan (1985). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/314"><i>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</i></a></span>. Harlow: Longman. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/314">314–316</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-51734-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-51734-9"><bdi>978-0-582-51734-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comprehensive+Grammar+of+the+English+Language&rft.place=Harlow&rft.pages=314-316&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-582-51734-9&rft.aulast=Quirk&rft.aufirst=Randolph&rft.au=Greenbaum%2C+Sidney&rft.au=Leech%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Svartvik%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomprehensivegra00quir%2Fpage%2F314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-west1-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-west1_45-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWestZimmerman1987" class="citation journal cs1">West, Candace; Zimmerman, Don H. (June 1987). "Doing gender". <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender & Society">Gender & Society</a></i>. <b>1</b> (2): 125–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0891243287001002002">10.1177/0891243287001002002</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/189945">189945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Doing+gender&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=125-151&rft.date=1987-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0891243287001002002&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F189945%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Candace&rft.au=Zimmerman%2C+Don+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://campus.fsu.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/academic/social_sciences/sociology/Reading%20Lists/Social%20Psych%20Prelim%20Readings/IV.%20Structures%20and%20Inequalities/1987%20West%20Zimmerman%20-%20Doing%20Gender.pdf">Pdf.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151225165833/https://campus.fsu.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/academic/social_sciences/sociology/Reading%20Lists/Social%20Psych%20Prelim%20Readings/IV.%20Structures%20and%20Inequalities/1987%20West%20Zimmerman%20-%20Doing%20Gender.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-12-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-jurik-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jurik_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jurik_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFJurikSiemsen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Jurik, Nancy C.; Siemsen, Cynthia (February 2009). "Doing gender as canon or agenda: A symposium on West and Zimmerman". <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender & Society">Gender & Society</a></i>. <b>23</b> (1): 72–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0891243208326677">10.1177/0891243208326677</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/20676750">20676750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Doing+gender+as+canon+or+agenda%3A+A+symposium+on+West+and+Zimmerman&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=72-75&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0891243208326677&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20676750%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jurik&rft.aufirst=Nancy+C.&rft.au=Siemsen%2C+Cynthia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-wz-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wz_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWestZimmerman2009" class="citation journal cs1">West, Candace; Zimmerman, Don H. (February 2009). "Accounting for doing gender". <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender & Society">Gender & Society</a></i>. <b>23</b> (1): 112–122. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.455.3546">10.1.1.455.3546</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0891243208326529">10.1177/0891243208326529</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/20676758">20676758</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Accounting+for+doing+gender&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=112-122&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.455.3546%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20676758%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0891243208326529&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Candace&rft.au=Zimmerman%2C+Don+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis, D., & Kaufer, D. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/31233/title/Beyond-Nature-vs--Nurture/">Beyond Nature vs. Nurture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104094323/http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view%2FarticleNo%2F31233%2Ftitle%2FBeyond-Nature-vs--Nurture%2F">Archived</a> 2014-01-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Scientist. October 1, 2011</span>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Halpern, D. (2012). Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities (4th Ed.). NY: Psychology Press. p. 35 - 36.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lippa, R. (2005). Gender, Nature and Nurture. NJ: LEA, p 3-4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cep.ucsb.edu/grads/Sell/(2009)%20Standards%20of%20evidence%20for%20designed%20sex%20differences.pdf">"Standards of evidence for designed sex differences"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ucsb.edu</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223410/http://www.cep.ucsb.edu/grads/Sell/(2009)%20Standards%20of%20evidence%20for%20designed%20sex%20differences.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ucsb.edu&rft.atitle=Standards+of+evidence+for+designed+sex+differences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cep.ucsb.edu%2Fgrads%2FSell%2F%282009%29%2520Standards%2520of%2520evidence%2520for%2520designed%2520sex%2520differences.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBourke_CHHarrell_CSNeigh_GN2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bourke CH; Harrell CS; Neigh GN (August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384757">"Stress-induced sex differences: adaptations mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor"</a>. <i>Hormones and Behavior</i>. <b>62</b> (3): 210–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yhbeh.2012.02.024">10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3384757">3384757</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22426413">22426413</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hormones+and+Behavior&rft.atitle=Stress-induced+sex+differences%3A+adaptations+mediated+by+the+glucocorticoid+receptor&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=210-8&rft.date=2012-08&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3384757%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22426413&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.yhbeh.2012.02.024&rft.au=Bourke+CH&rft.au=Harrell+CS&rft.au=Neigh+GN&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3384757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mills, M.E. (2011). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-how-and-why-sex-differences/201110/sex-difference-vs-gender-difference-oh-im-so-confused">Sex Difference vs. Gender Difference? Oh, I'm So Confused!</a>" <i><a href="/wiki/Psychology_Today" title="Psychology Today">Psychology Today</a></i>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Altilio-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Altilio_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1">Terry Altilio, Shirley Otis-Green (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XS3XJL_RGIgC&pg=PA380"><i>Oxford Textbook of Palliative Social Work</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199838271" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199838271"><bdi>978-0199838271</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20160412110817/https://books.google.com/books?id=XS3XJL_RGIgC&pg=PA380">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2016</span>. <q><i>Transgender</i> is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth (Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation [GLAAD], 2007).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Textbook+of+Palliative+Social+Work&rft.pages=380&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0199838271&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXS3XJL_RGIgC%26pg%3DPA380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_uses_authors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: uses authors parameter">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Forsyth-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Forsyth_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Forsyth_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation book cs1">Craig J. Forsyth, Heith Copes (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NAjmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA740"><i>Encyclopedia of Social Deviance</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Sage_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Sage Publications">Sage Publications</a>. p. 740. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1483364698" title="Special:BookSources/978-1483364698"><bdi>978-1483364698</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20160414072346/https://books.google.com/books?id=NAjmBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA740">Archived</a> from the original on April 14, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2016</span>. <q>Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identities, gender expressions, and/or behaviors are different from those culturally associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Social+Deviance&rft.pages=740&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1483364698&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNAjmBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA740&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_uses_authors_parameter" title="Category:CS1 maint: uses authors parameter">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Berg-Weger-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Berg-Weger_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMarla_Berg-Weger2016" class="citation book cs1">Marla Berg-Weger (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx7NCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229"><i>Social Work and Social Welfare: An Invitation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317592020" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317592020"><bdi>978-1317592020</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20160412221356/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx7NCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229">Archived</a> from the original on April 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2016</span>. <q>Transgender: An umbrella term that describes people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from expectations associated with the sex assigned to them at birth.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Work+and+Social+Welfare%3A+An+Invitation&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317592020&rft.au=Marla+Berg-Weger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFx7NCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-glaad.org-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-glaad.org_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender">"GLAAD Media Reference Guide – Transgender glossary of terms"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/689BChG1X?url=http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender">Archived</a> 2012-06-03 at <a href="/wiki/WebCite" title="WebCite">WebCite</a>, "<a href="/wiki/GLAAD" title="GLAAD">GLAAD</a>", USA, May 2010. Retrieved on 2011-02-24. "An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differs from what is typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Bilodeau-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bilodeau_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B Bilodeau, <i>Beyond the gender binary: A case study of two transgender students at a Midwestern research university</i>, in the <i>Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education</i> (2005): "Yet Jordan and Nick represent a segment of transgender communities that have largely been overlooked in transgender and student development research – individuals who express a non-binary construction of gender[.]"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Stryker3G-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stryker3G_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susan Stryker, Stephen Whittle, <i>The Transgender Studies Reader</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-135-39884-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-135-39884-4">1-135-39884-4</a>), page 666: "The authors note that, increasingly, in social science literature, the term “third gender” is being replaced by or conflated with the newer term “transgender.”</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Chrisler-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chrisler_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joan C. Chrisler, Donald R. McCreary, <i>Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology</i>, volume 1 (2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4419-1465-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4419-1465-X">1-4419-1465-X</a>), page 486: "Transgender is a broad term characterized by a challenge of traditional gender roles and gender identity[. …] For example, some cultures classify transgender individuals as a third gender, thereby treating this phenomenon as normative."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReisnerEtAl-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReisnerEtAl_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sari L. Reisner, Kerith Conron, Matthew J. Mimiaga, Sebastien Haneuse, et al, <i>Comparing in-person and online survey respondents in the US National Transgender Discrimination Survey: implications for transgender health research</i>, in <i>LGBT Health</i>, June 2014, 1(2): 98-106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1089%2Flgbt.2013.0018">10.1089/lgbt.2013.0018</a>: "Transgender was defined broadly to cover those who transition from one gender to another as well as those who may not choose to socially, medically, or legally fully transition, including cross-dressers, people who consider themselves to be genderqueer, androgynous, and ..."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birke, Lynda (2001). "In Pursuit of Difference: Scientific Studies of Women and Men," Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch eds., The Gender and Science Reader, New York: Routledge. p. 320.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fausto-Sterling, Anne "Of Gender and Genitals" from Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality New York, NY: Basic Books, 2000, [Chapter 3, pp. 44-77].</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ISNA."Frequently Asked Questions." Intersex Society of North America 1993-2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isna.org/">"Intersex Society of North America | A world free of shame, secrecy, and unwanted genital surgery | Intersex Society of North America"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160519013103/http://www.isna.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-05-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-12-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intersex+Society+of+North+America+%26%23124%3B+A+world+free+of+shame%2C+secrecy%2C+and+unwanted+genital+surgery+%26%23124%3B+Intersex+Society+of+North+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isna.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-lorber-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lorber_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lorber_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lorber_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lorber, Judith (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unm.edu/~edickins/Lorber_Seeing_is_Believing.pdf">"Believing is Seeing: Biology as Ideology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130124221303/http://www.unm.edu/~edickins/Lorber_Seeing_is_Believing.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-01-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved on 8 May 2013.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kessler, Suzanne (1990). "The Medical Construction of Gender: Case Management of Intersexed Infants". <i>Signs</i>, Vol. 16, No. 1: 3-26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zerilli, Linda M. G., <i>The Trojan Horse of Universalism: Language As a 'War Machine' in the Writings of Monique Wittig</i>, in Robbins, Bruce, ed., <i>The Phantom Public Sphere</i> (Minneapolis, Minn.: Univ. of Minn. Press, 1993 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-2124-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8166-2124-1">0-8166-2124-1</a>)), pp. 153–154 (n. 35 (citing Wittig, Monique, <i>The Straight Mind</i>, in <i>Feminist Issues</i>, vol. 1, no. 1, Summer, 1980, p. 107) omitted) (author asst. prof., poli. sci. dep't, Rutgers Univ., & ed. teaches, Eng. dep't, Rutgers Univ., & coeditor, <i>Social Text</i>) (em-dash surrounded by half-spaces in original).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFButler1999" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Judith (1999). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gendertroublefem00butl"><i>Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gendertroublefem00butl/page/9">9–11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+Trouble%3A+Feminism+and+the+Subversion+of+Identity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9-11&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgendertroublefem00butl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gender_and_sexual_identities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r992953826">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gender_and_sexual_identities" title="Template talk:Gender and sexual identities"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Gender_and_sexual_identities&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gender_and_sexual_identities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">sexual</a> identities</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender<br />identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Genders</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Man" title="Man">Man</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Woman" title="Woman">Woman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Androgyny#Gender_identity" title="Androgyny">Androgyne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boi_(slang)" title="Boi (slang)">Boi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">Cisgender</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cross-dressing" title="Cross-dressing">Cross-dresser</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gender_bender" title="Gender bender">Gender bender</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality" title="Gender neutrality">Gender neutrality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">Non-binary</a> (or genderqueer)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gender_variance" title="Gender variance">Gender variance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trans_man" title="Trans man">Trans man</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">Trans woman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">Transsexual</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">Third genders</a><br />or third sexes</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Androgynos" title="Androgynos">Androgynos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akava%27ine" title="Akava'ine">Akava'ine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apwint" title="Apwint">Apwint</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bakla" title="Bakla">Bakla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gender_in_Bugis_society" title="Gender in Bugis society">Bugis genders</a>
<ul><li>Bissu</li>
<li>Calabai</li>
<li>Calalai</li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chibados" title="Chibados">Chibados</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enaree" title="Enaree">Enaree</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">Eunuch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fa%27afafine" title="Fa'afafine">Fa'afafine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fakaleit%C4%AB" title="Fakaleitī">Fakaleitī</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Femminiello" title="Femminiello">Femminiello</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Galli" title="Galli">Galli</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">Hijra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kathoey" title="Kathoey">Kathoey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Khanith" title="Khanith">Khanith</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6%C3%A7ek" title="Köçek">Köçek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Koekchuch" title="Koekchuch">Koekchuch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lhamana" title="Lhamana">Lhamana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81h%C5%AB" title="Māhū">Māhū</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mak_nyah" title="Mak nyah">Mak nyah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mukhannathun" title="Mukhannathun">Mukhannathun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Muxe" title="Muxe">Muxe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A1dleehi" title="Nádleehi">Nádleehi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nullo_(body_modification)" title="Nullo (body modification)">Nullo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rae-rae" title="Rae-rae">Rae-rae</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sipiniq" title="Sipiniq">Sipiniq</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_sworn_virgins" title="Albanian sworn virgins">Sworn virgin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Takat%C4%81pui" title="Takatāpui">Takatāpui</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Travesti_(gender_identity)" title="Travesti (gender identity)">Travesti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tumtum_(Judaism)" title="Tumtum (Judaism)">Tumtum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Winkte" title="Winkte">Winkte</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">Sexual<br />orientation<br />identities</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientations</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asexuality" title="Asexuality">Asexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bisexuality" title="Bisexuality">Bisexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexuality" title="Heterosexuality">Heterosexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">Homosexual</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Alternative labels</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banjee" title="Banjee">Banjee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bi-curious" title="Bi-curious">Bi-curious</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ex-gay_movement" title="Ex-gay movement">Ex-gay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ex-ex-gay" title="Ex-ex-gay">Ex-ex-gay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gay" title="Gay">Gay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gay_men" title="Gay men">Gay men</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gray_asexuality" title="Gray asexuality">Gray asexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heteroflexibility" title="Heteroflexibility">Heteroflexible</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian" title="Lesbian">Lesbian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-heterosexual" title="Non-heterosexual">Non-heterosexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pansexuality" title="Pansexuality">Pansexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polysexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysexuality">Polysexual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Queer" title="Queer">Queer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Questioning_(sexuality_and_gender)" title="Questioning (sexuality and gender)">Questioning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Same_gender_loving" title="Same gender loving">Same gender loving</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociosexuality" title="Sociosexuality">Sociosexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antisexualism" title="Antisexualism">Antisexuality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">Monogamy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-monogamy" title="Non-monogamy">Non-monogamy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polyamory" title="Polyamory">Polyamorous</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asociality" title="Asociality">AResolver
Resolver ASN
AS15169
Resolver IP
172.253.211.15
Resolver Network Name
Google LLC
Measurement UID
20210420111601.607039_MM_webconnectivity_ba9482c0925cfa93
Report ID
20210420T110651Z_webconnectivity_MM_138168_n1_cl6d4ubuJtPUVgwF
Platform
windows
Software Name
ooniprobe-desktop-unattended (3.9.2)
Measurement Engine
ooniprobe-engine (3.9.2)