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	<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" >Sex and gender distinction</h1>
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		<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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		<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Distinction between an individual's sex and their gender</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a> is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, which can refer to either social roles based on the sex of a person (<a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">gender role</a>) or personal identification of one's own gender based on an internal awareness (<a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Virginia_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virginia-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carlson_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carlson-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> While in ordinary speech, the terms <i>sex</i> and <i>gender</i> are often used interchangeably,<sup id="cite_ref-udry_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udry-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haig_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> most contemporary social scientists,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-socialsciencedictionary_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-socialsciencedictionary-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pearsonhighered_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pearsonhighered-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup> behavioral scientists and biologists,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimmel20173_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimmel20173-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> many legal systems and government bodies,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> and intergovernmental agencies such as the <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> make a distinction between gender and sex.
</p><p>In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent, and consistent with the individual's gender identity,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargava2021_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargava2021-14">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup> but in some circumstances, an individual's <a href="/wiki/Assigned_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Assigned sex">assigned sex</a> and gender do not align, and the person may be <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Virginia_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Virginia-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> In other cases, an individual may have <a href="/wiki/Sex_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex characteristics">sex characteristics</a> that complicate sex assignment, and the person may be <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sexologist</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a> is often regarded as the first to introduce a distinction between biological sex and gender identity/role in 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup> although <a href="/wiki/I._Madison_Bentley" title="I. Madison Bentley">Madison Bentley</a> had already defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex" a decade earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> As originally conceived by Money, gender and sex are analysed together as a single category including both biological and social elements, but later work by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stoller" title="Robert Stoller">Robert Stoller</a> separated the two, designating sex and gender as biological and cultural categories, respectively. Before the work of Bentley, Money and Stoller, the word gender was only regularly used to refer to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical categories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-udry2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udry2-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aldous-1967_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldous-1967-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haig2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig2-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Sex"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Sex</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Biologists"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Biologists</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-3"><a href="#Sex_differences"><span class="tocnumber">1.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Sex differences</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Psychiatrists"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Psychiatrists</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Psychologists"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Psychologists</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Sociologists"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Sociologists</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Feminist_theorists"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Feminist theorists</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Dictionaries"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Dictionaries</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Public_health_organizations"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Public health organizations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Gender"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Gender</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Dictionaries_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Dictionaries</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Public_medical_organizations"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Public medical organizations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Political_organizations"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Political organizations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#History_2"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Distinction_in_linguistics"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Distinction in linguistics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#West_and_Zimmerman&#39;s_&quot;Doing_Gender&quot;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">West and Zimmerman's "Doing Gender"</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Criticism_of_the_&quot;sex_difference&quot;_versus_&quot;gender_difference&quot;_distinction"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism of the "sex difference" versus "gender difference" distinction</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Transgender_and_genderqueer"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Transgender and genderqueer</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Feminism"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Feminism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#General"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">General</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Limitations"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Limitations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Institutional_and_governmental_use"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Institutional and governmental use</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#U.S._Census"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">U.S. Census</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Australian_government"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Australian government</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#United_Kingdom_government"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">United Kingdom government</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Health_organizations"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Health organizations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Mental_health_associations"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">Mental health associations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>

<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sex">Sex</span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Biologists">Biologists</span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a>, or the size differences of <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> (sex cells), is the defining feature of the two sexes.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup> According to biologist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Majerus" title="Michael Majerus">Michael Majerus</a> there is no other universal difference between males and females.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>By definition, <a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">males</a> are organisms that produce small, mobile gametes (<a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>); while <a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">females</a> are organisms that produce large and generally immobile gametes (<a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ova</a> or eggs).<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar-201922_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-201922-28">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">&#91;29&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:92_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:92-31">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> stated that it is possible to interpret all the differences between the <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sexes</a> as stemming from this single difference in gametes.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-1989_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-1989-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Bhargava et al. (2021) note that the terms sex and gender are not, and should not be used as, interchangeable terms. They state that "[s]ex is dichotomous, with sex determination in the fertilized zygote stemming from unequal expression of sex chromosomal genes." In contrast, gender is seen as including "perception of the individual as male, female, or other, both by the individual and by society".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33">&#91;33&#93;</a></sup> The authors differentiate between <i>sex differences</i>, caused by biological factors, and <i>gender differences</i>, which "reflect a complex interplay of psychological, environmental, cultural, and biological factors".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> Gender identity is thus seen as a "psychological concept that refers to an individual's self-perception".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> 
</p><p>Other studies have noted that, while there is some tentative evidence for a potential genetic, neuroanatomical, and hormonal basis for gender identity, the specific biological mechanisms involved have not yet been demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">&#91;35&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Sex_differences">Sex differences</span></h4>
<p>The term <i>sex differences</i> is typically applied to <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">sexually dimorphic</a> traits that are hypothesized to be evolved consequences of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>. For example, the human "sex difference" in height is a consequence of sexual selection, while the "gender difference" typically seen in head hair length (women with longer hair) is not.<sup id="cite_ref-Mealey,_L._2000_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mealey,_L._2000-36">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Geary,_D._C._2009_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geary,_D._C._2009-37">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup> Scientific research shows an individual's sex influences his or her behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">&#91;41&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">&#91;42&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Sex differences are primarily caused by hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/David_C._Geary" title="David C. Geary">David Geary</a>, the most fundamental sex difference in humans is the respective cost of reproduction, which is higher for females than males because of pregnancy and higher postnatal parental expenditure, resulting in different mating choice preferences for males and females.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">&#91;43&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Psychiatrists">Psychiatrists</span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stoller" title="Robert Stoller">Robert Stoller</a>, whose work was the first to treat sex and gender as "two different orders of data", in his book <i>Sex and Gender: The Development of Masculinity and Femininity</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERepo201649_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERepo201649-44">&#91;44&#93;</a></sup> uses the term 'sex' to refer to the "male or the female sex and the component biological parts that determine whether one is a male or a female".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">&#91;45&#93;</a></sup> He further states that, in order to determine sex, chromosomes, external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads, hormonal states, secondary sex characteristics, and possibly also brain systems, must be analysed. He states that a person's sex is determined by "an algebraic sum of all these qualities", resulting in most people being classified as either 'male' or 'female'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoller19849_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoller19849-46">&#91;46&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> states that sex is often described as a biological construct, "defined on an anatomical, hormonal, or genetic basis", and assigned at birth based on external genitalia.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Psychologists">Psychologists</span></h3>
<p>In <i>The Psychology of Gender</i>, it is stated that "sex refers to the biological categories of female and male, categories distinguished by genes, chromosomes, and hormones."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> One of the (context dependant) guidelines used by the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> states that "[t]here are a number of indicators of biological sex, including sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs, and external genitalia."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sociologists">Sociologists</span></h3>
<p>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Dudley_L._Poston_Jr." title="Dudley L. Poston Jr.">Dudley Poston</a> states that sex in humans is "determined biologically, in five ways":<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">&#91;50&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<ul><li>Based on different <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a>.</li>
<li>Based on different <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a>, which produce the gametes and sex hormones.</li>
<li>Based on different relative levels of <a href="/wiki/Sex_hormone" title="Sex hormone">sex-specific hormones</a>.</li>
<li>Based on different internal reproductive structures.</li>
<li>Based on different sex-specific external genitals. This definition usually results in the assignment of sex at birth.</li></ul>
<p>According to Poston, "[s]ex refers mainly to biological characteristics, while gender refers mainly to sociological characteristics."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoston201921_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoston201921-51">&#91;51&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>While noting that typically sex is assigned based on genital inspection at birth, Raine Dozier states that biological sex is "a complex constellation of chromosomes, hormones, genitalia, and reproductive organs."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">&#91;52&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Feminist_theorists">Feminist theorists</span></h3>
<p>In <i>The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory</i>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Hawkesworth" title="Mary Hawkesworth">Mary Hawkesworth</a> and Lisa Disch note that feminist theorists have criticised the biological basis of sexual dimorphism. These theorists claim to have demonstrated that there are more than two naturally occurring sexes, and that, whether defined in terms of chromosomes, hormones, gonads, internal morphology, external genitalia, or secondary sex characteristics, "none of the typical correlates of biological sex conform to the demands of dichotomous classification", and that all these characteristics "fail to differentiate all men from all women or to provide a common core within each sex."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</span></h3>
<p><i>Sex</i> is annotated as different from <i>gender</i> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, where it says <i>sex</i> "tends now to refer to biological differences, while gender often refers to cultural or social ones."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">&#91;54&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a> defines sex as “either of the two major forms of individuals that occur in many species and that are distinguished respectively as female or male especially on the basis of their reproductive organs and structures.” or "the sum of the structural, functional, and sometimes behavioral characteristics of organisms that distinguish males and females". They also note that "[d]octors can alter the physical characteristics of sex, but bodily sex does not determine gender."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_health_organizations">Public health organizations</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) similarly states that "'sex' refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women" and that "'male' and 'female' are sex categories".<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-56">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> people whose internal psychological experience differs from their <a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">assigned sex</a> are <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">transsexual</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">non-binary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CDCTerms_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDCTerms-57">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h3>
<p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Thomas_W._Laqueur" title="Thomas W. Laqueur">Thomas W. Laqueur</a> suggests that from the Renaissance to the 18th century, there was a prevailing inclination among doctors towards the existence of only one biological sex (the <a href="/wiki/One-sex_and_two-sex_theories" title="One-sex and two-sex theories">one-sex theory</a>, that women and men had the same fundamental reproductive structure).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourses</a>, this view persisted into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">&#91;60&#93;</a></sup> Laqueur asserts that even at its peak, the one-sex model was supported among highly educated Europeans but is not known to have been a popular view nor one entirely agreed upon by doctors who treated the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Joan_Cadden_(historian)" title="Joan Cadden (historian)">Joan Cadden</a> and Michael Stolberg have criticized Laqueur's theory. Stolberg provides evidence to suggest that significant two-sex understandings of anatomy existed before Laqueur claims, arguing that sexual dimorphism was accepted as early as the sixteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-stolberg_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stolberg-62">&#91;62&#93;</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 276">&#58;&#8202;276&#8202;</span></sup> Joan Cadden has stated that 'one-sex' models of the body were already treated with scepticism in the ancient and medieval periods, and that Laqueur's periodisation of the shift from one-sex to two-sex was not as clear-cut as he made it out to be.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">&#91;63&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Sex and gender took center stage in America in the time of wars, when women had to work and men were at war.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">&#91;64&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Gender">Gender</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Dictionaries_2">Dictionaries</span></h3>
<p>In the <i>Oxford English Dictionary</i>, <i>gender</i> is defined as, "[i]n mod[ern] (esp[ecially] feminist) use, a euphemism for the sex of a human being, often intended to emphasize the social and cultural, as opposed to the biological, distinctions between the sexes", with the earliest example cited being from 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">&#91;65&#93;</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (September 2021)">needs update</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> The <i>American Heritage Dictionary</i> (5th edition) states that <i>gender</i> may be defined by identity as "neither entirely female nor entirely male"; its <i>Usage Note</i> adds:<sup id="cite_ref-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ahdictionary.com,_5th_ed-66">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<blockquote><p>Some people maintain that the word <i>sex</i> should be reserved for reference to the biological aspects of being male or female or to sexual activity, and that the word <i>gender</i> should be used only to refer to sociocultural roles. ... In some situations this distinction avoids ambiguity, as in <i>gender research</i>, which is clear in a way that <i>sex research</i> is not. The distinction can be problematic, however. Linguistically, there isn't any real difference between <i>gender bias</i> and <i>sex bias</i>, and it may seem contrived to insist that <i>sex</i> is incorrect in this instance.</p></blockquote>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Public_medical_organizations">Public medical organizations</span></h3>
<p>A working definition in use by the World Health Organization for its work is that "'[g]ender' refers to the <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">socially constructed</a> roles, behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women" and that "'masculine' and 'feminine' are gender categories."<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-56">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) used to use <i>gender</i> instead of <i>sex</i> when referring to physiological differences between male and female organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">&#91;67&#93;</a></sup> In 2011, they reversed their position on this and began using <i>sex </i>as the biological classification and <i>gender</i> as "a person's self representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup> <i>Gender</i> is also now commonly used even to refer to the physiology of non-human animals, without any implication of social gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-haig_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_organizations">Political organizations</span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/GLAAD" title="GLAAD">GLAAD</a> (formerly the Gay &amp; Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation) makes a distinction between sex and gender. In their Media Reference Guide for transgender issues, they describe sex as "the classification of people as male or female" at birth, based on bodily characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, internal reproductive organs, and genitalia, and gender identity as "a person's internal, deeply held sense of their gender".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History_2">History</span></h3>
<p>There is little general agreement among archaeologists about what can be accurately stated about gender identities, roles, and processes in the earliest human societies between 40,000 and 4,000 years before the present.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobres2020_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobres2020-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> There is a consensus that cultures at this time differentiated categories of people by 'gender', if this is defined as rules of behavior and roles based on sex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobres2020_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobres2020-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> It is likely that the highly differentiated cultures of this period did not possess a single gender classification system, and instead  their conception of gender may have been culture-specific, much like contemporary societies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobres2020_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobres2020-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup> It is feasible that some of the cultures of this era recognised up to five genders. For example, certain production roles, spiritual leaders, and healers may have been recognised as distinct genders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobres2020_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobres2020-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">&#91;71&#93;</a></sup> Whether or not social roles, such as religious leadership, were based upon gender, rather than age or skills, continues to be debated.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72">&#91;72&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Some archaeological evidence suggests that gender, in the sense of social and behavioral distinctions, arose "at least by some 30,000 years ago".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">&#91;73&#93;</a></sup> More evidence was found as of  "26,000 years ago",<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">&#91;74&#93;</a></sup> at least at the archeological site <a href="/wiki/Doln%C3%AD_V%C4%9Bstonice_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolní Věstonice (archaeology)">Dolní Věstonice I</a> and others, in what is now the Czech Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">&#91;75&#93;</a></sup> This is during the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> time period.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">&#91;76&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>From the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>, various evidence suggests gender-differentiated tool use and diet in some cultures. By this time, it is likely that gender had become an important element of the organizational structure of these societies. Similar grave goods found in male and female high-status burials of this period, however, indicate that status was not simply based on gender. There is also much more evidence for the recognition of third and fourth genders from this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDobres2020_70-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDobres2020-70">&#91;70&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>In 2011, it was reported that an untypical <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware</a> burial, dated to between 2900 and 2500 B.C., had been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">&#91;77&#93;</a></sup> The remains, believed to be anatomically male, were orientated in the same way as women's burials and were not accompanied by any gender-specific grave goods. Based on this the archaeologist Kamila Věšínová suggests that it was likely that this was an individual "with a different sexual orientation, homosexual or transsexual",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeller2019_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeller2019-78">&#91;78&#93;</a></sup> while media reports heralded the discovery of the world's first "gay caveman".<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">&#91;79&#93;</a></sup> Archaeologists and biological anthropologists criticised media coverage as sensationalist, as well as criticising Věšínová's original statement, in which she conflates sex, gender, and sexuality,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeller2019_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeller2019-78">&#91;78&#93;</a></sup> arguing that, although the burial might well represent a transgender individual, it does not necessarily mean that they had a different sexual orientation, or that their culture would have considered them 'homosexual'.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">&#91;80&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Turek notes that there are several examples of Corded Ware graves containing older biological males with typically female grave goods and body orientation. He suggests that "aged men may have decided to 'retire' as women for symbolic and practical reasons."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">&#91;81&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>The historic meaning of <i>gender</i>, ultimately derived from Latin <i>genus</i>, was of "kind" or "variety". By the 20th century, this meaning was obsolete, and the word gender was almost always used to refer to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical categories</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-udry2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-udry2-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aldous-1967_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aldous-1967-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-haig2_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig2-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> although there are a small number of examples of gender being used as a synonym for sex prior to the 20th century, and even as early as 1474.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">&#91;82&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">&#91;83&#93;</a></sup> This changed in the early 1970s when the work of <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a>, particularly the popular college textbook <i>Man &amp; Woman, Boy &amp; Girl</i>, was embraced by <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a>. This meaning of <i>gender</i> is now prevalent in the social sciences, although in many other contexts, <i>gender</i> includes <i>sex</i> or replaces it.<sup id="cite_ref-haig_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-haig-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> As formulated by Money, gender is seen as an additional variable of sex. The later work of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Stoller" title="Robert Stoller">Robert Stoller</a>, who innovated the term "gender identity", separated gender from sex as specifically cultural and biological categories, respectively, and treated them as  "two different orders of data".<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">&#91;84&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Distinction_in_linguistics">Distinction in linguistics</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Language_and_gender" title="Language and gender">Language and gender</a></div>
<p>Since the social sciences now distinguish between biologically defined <i>sex</i> and socially constructed <i>gender</i>, the term <i>gender</i> is now also sometimes used by linguists to refer to social gender as well as grammatical gender. Some languages, such as German or Finnish, have no separate words for sex and gender. German, for example, uses "Biologisches Geschlecht" for biological sex, and "Soziales Geschlecht" for gender when making this distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">&#91;85&#93;</a></sup> Traditionally, however, a distinction has been made by linguists between <i>sex</i> and <i>gender</i>, where <i>sex</i> refers primarily to the attributes of  real-world entities – the relevant extralinguistic attributes being, for instance,  male, female, non-personal, and indeterminate sex – and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> refers to a category, such as  masculine, feminine, and neuter (frequently based on sex, but not exclusively so in all languages), that determines the <a href="/wiki/Agreement_(linguistics)" title="Agreement (linguistics)">agreement</a> between nouns of different genders and associated words, such as articles and adjectives.<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield_on_grammatical_gender_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield_on_grammatical_gender-87">&#91;87&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<p><i><a href="/wiki/A_Comprehensive_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language">A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</a></i>, for instance, states <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996844942">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By GENDER is meant a grammatical classification of nouns, pronouns, or other words in the noun phrase according to certain meaning-related distinctions, especially a distinction related to the sex of the referent.<sup id="cite_ref-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender-88">&#91;88&#93;</a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Thus German, for instance, has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Nouns referring to people and animals of known sex are <i>generally</i>  referred to by nouns with the equivalent gender. Thus <i>Mann</i> (meaning man) is masculine and is associated with a masculine definite article to give <i>der Mann</i>, while <i>Frau</i> (meaning woman) is feminine and is associated with a feminine definite article to give <i>die Frau</i>. However the words for inanimate objects are commonly masculine (e.g. <i>der Tisch</i>, the table) or feminine (<i>die Armbanduhr</i>, the watch), and grammatical gender can diverge from biological sex; for instance the feminine noun <i>[die] Person</i> refers to a person of either sex, and the neuter noun <i>[das] Mädchen</i> means "the girl".
</p><p>In modern English, there is no true grammatical gender in this sense,<sup id="cite_ref-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huddleston_on_grammatical_gender-86">&#91;86&#93;</a></sup> though the differentiation, for instance, between the pronouns "he" and "she", which in English refers to a difference in sex (or social gender), is sometimes referred to as a gender distinction. <i>A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</i>, for instance, refers to the semantically based "covert" gender (e.g. male and female, not masculine and feminine) of English nouns, as opposed to the "overt" gender of some English pronouns; this yields <i>nine</i> gender classes: male, female, dual, common, collective, higher male animal, higher female animal, lower animal, and inanimate, and these semantic gender classes affect the possible choices of pronoun for coreference to the real-life entity, e.g. <i>who</i> and <i>he</i> for <i>brother</i> but <i>which</i> and <i>it</i> or <i>she</i> for <i>cow</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quirk_on_grammatical_gender-88">&#91;88&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="West_and_Zimmerman.27s_.22Doing_Gender.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="West_and_Zimmerman's_&quot;Doing_Gender&quot;">West and Zimmerman's "Doing Gender"</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Doing_gender" title="Doing gender">Doing gender</a></div>
<p>Used primarily in sociology and gender studies, "<i><a href="/wiki/Doing_gender" title="Doing gender">doing gender</a>"</i> is the socially constructed performance which takes place during routine human interactions, rather than as a set of essentialized qualities based on one's biological sex.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> The term first appeared in Candace West and Don Zimmerman's article "Doing Gender", published in the peer-reviewed journal, <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender &amp; Society">Gender and Society</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jurik_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jurik-90">&#91;90&#93;</a></sup> Originally written in 1977 but not published until 1987,<sup id="cite_ref-wz_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wz-91">&#91;91&#93;</a></sup> "Doing Gender" is the most cited article published in <i>Gender and Society</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jurik_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jurik-90">&#91;90&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>West and Zimmerman state that to understand gender as activity, it is important to differentiate between sex, sex category, and gender.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 127">&#58;&#8202;127&#8202;</span></sup> They say that sex refers to the socially agreed upon specifications that establish one as male or female; sex is most often based on an individual's genitalia, or even their chromosomal typing before birth.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> They consider sex categories to be dichotomous, and that the person is placed in a sex category by exhibiting qualities exclusive to one category or the other. During most interactions, others situate a person's sex by identifying their sex category; however, they believe that a person's sex need not align with their sex category.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> West and Zimmerman maintain that the sex category is "established and sustained by the socially required identificatory displays that proclaim one's membership in one or the other category".<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 127">&#58;&#8202;127&#8202;</span></sup> Gender is the performance of attitudes and actions that are considered socially acceptable for one's sex category.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 127">&#58;&#8202;127&#8202;</span></sup>
</p><p>West and Zimmerman suggested that the interactional process of <i>doing gender</i>, combined with socially agreed upon gender expectations, holds individuals accountable for their gender performances.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> They also believe that while "doing gender" appropriately strengthens and promotes social structures based on the gender <a href="/wiki/Dichotomy" title="Dichotomy">dichotomy</a>, it inappropriately does not call into question these same social structures; only the individual actor is questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup> The concept of "doing gender" recognizes that gender both structures human interactions and is created through them.<sup id="cite_ref-west1_89-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-west1-89">&#91;89&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span id="Criticism_of_the_.22sex_difference.22_versus_.22gender_difference.22_distinction"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism_of_the_&quot;sex_difference&quot;_versus_&quot;gender_difference&quot;_distinction">Criticism of the "sex difference" versus "gender difference" distinction</span></h2>
<p>The current distinction between the terms <i>sex difference</i> versus <i>gender difference</i> has been criticized as misleading and counterproductive. These terms suggest that the behavior <i>of an individual</i> can be partitioned into separate biological and cultural factors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (May 2020)">original research?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> (However, behavioral differences between individuals can be statistically partitioned, as studied by <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral genetics">behavioral genetics</a>.) Instead, all behaviors are phenotypes—a complex interweaving of both nature and nurture.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">&#91;92&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Some psychologists<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">&#91;93&#93;</a></sup> have argued that the distinction between the terms "sex" and "gender" should be abandoned. The term "gender/sex" has been proposed, to emphasise the inseparability of biological, sociological, and cultural factors.<sup id="cite_ref-hydeetal_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hydeetal-94">&#91;94&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">&#91;95&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<p><a href="/wiki/Diane_F._Halpern" title="Diane F. Halpern">Diane Halpern</a>, in her book <i><a href="/wiki/Sex_Differences_in_Cognitive_Abilities" title="Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities">Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities</a>,</i> argued problems with <i>sex</i> vs. <i>gender</i> terminology:</p><blockquote><p>I cannot argue (in this book) that nature and nurture are inseparable and then... use different terms to refer to each class of variables.  The ... biological manifestations of sex are confounded with psychosocial variables.... The use of different terms to label these two types of contributions to human existence seemed inappropriate in light of the biopsychosocial position I have taken.</p></blockquote><p>She quotes <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a>'s summary of the problems with the terms sex and gender: "Part of it is a new prissiness—many people today are as squeamish about sexual dimorphism as the Victorians were about sex. But part of it is a limitation of the English language. The word 'sex' refers ambiguously to copulation and to sexual dimorphism..."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">&#91;96&#93;</a></sup> Richard Lippa writes in <i>Gender, Nature and Nurture</i> that:<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">&#91;97&#93;</a></sup></p><blockquote><p>Some researchers have argued that the word <i>sex</i> should be used to refer to (biological differences), whereas the word <i>gender</i> should be used to refer to (cultural differences). However, it is not at all clear the degree to which the differences between males and females are due to biological factors versus learned and cultural factors. Furthermore, indiscriminate use of the word <i>gender</i> tends to obscure the distinction between two different topics: (a) differences between males and females, and (b) individual differences in maleness and femaleness that occur within each sex.</p></blockquote><p>It has been suggested that more useful distinctions to make would be whether a behavioral difference between the sexes is first due to an evolved <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>, then, if so, whether the adaptation is sexually dimorphic (different) or sexually monomorphic (the same in both sexes). The term <i>sex difference</i> could then be re-defined as between-sex differences that are manifestations of a sexually dimorphic adaptation (which is how many scientists use the term),<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">&#91;98&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">&#91;99&#93;</a></sup> while the term <i>gender difference</i> could be re-defined as due to differential socialization between the sexes of a monomorphic adaptation or byproduct. For example, greater male propensity toward physical aggression and risk taking would be termed a "sex difference;" the generally longer head hair length of females would be termed a "gender difference".<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">&#91;100&#93;</a></sup>
</p><h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Transgender_and_genderqueer">Transgender and genderqueer</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">Genderqueer</a></div>
<p>Transgender people experience a mismatch between their <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">gender expression</a>, and their <a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">assigned sex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Altilio_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Altilio-101">&#91;101&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-102">&#91;102&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Berg-Weger_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Berg-Weger-103">&#91;103&#93;</a></sup> Transgender people are sometimes called <i><a href="/wiki/Transsexual" title="Transsexual">transsexual</a></i> if they desire medical assistance to <a href="/wiki/Transitioning_(transgender)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitioning (transgender)">transition</a> from one sex to another.
</p><p><i>Transgender</i> is also an <a href="/wiki/Umbrella_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrella term">umbrella term</a>: in addition to including people whose gender identity is the <i>opposite</i> of their assigned sex (<a href="/wiki/Trans_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans men">trans men</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trans_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans women">trans women</a>), it may include people who are not exclusively masculine or feminine (e.g. people who are <a href="/wiki/Genderqueer" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderqueer">genderqueer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-binary">non-binary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bigender" class="mw-redirect" title="Bigender">bigender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pangender" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangender">pangender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genderfluid" class="mw-redirect" title="Genderfluid">genderfluid</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Agender" class="mw-redirect" title="Agender">agender</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Forsyth_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsyth-102">&#91;102&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-glaad.org_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glaad.org-104">&#91;104&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bilodeau_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bilodeau-105">&#91;105&#93;</a></sup> Other definitions of <i>transgender</i> also include people who belong to a <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third gender</a>, or conceptualize transgender people as a third gender.<sup id="cite_ref-Stryker3G_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stryker3G-106">&#91;106&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chrisler_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chrisler-107">&#91;107&#93;</a></sup> Infrequently, the term <i>transgender</i> is defined very broadly to include <a href="/wiki/Cross-dresser" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-dresser">cross-dressers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReisnerEtAl_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReisnerEtAl-108">&#91;108&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Feminism">Feminism</span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_transgender_topics" title="Feminist views on transgender topics">Feminist views on transgender topics</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General">General</span></h3>
<p>Many <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminists</a> consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or cultural construction. For example, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lynda_Birke&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lynda Birke (page does not exist)">Lynda Birke</a>, a feminist biologist, states that <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'biology' is not seen as something which might change."<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">&#91;109&#93;</a></sup>  However, the sex/gender distinction, also known as the Standard Model of Sex/Gender,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (June 2021)">original research?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> is criticized by feminists who believe that there is undue emphasis placed on sex being a biological aspect, something that is fixed, natural, unchanging, and consisting of a male/female dichotomy. They believe the distinction fails to recognize anything outside the strictly male/female dichotomy and that it creates a barrier between those that fit as 'usual' and those that are 'unusual'.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (June 2021)">who?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (June 2021)">original research?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> In <a href="/wiki/Anne_Fausto-Sterling" title="Anne Fausto-Sterling">Anne Fausto-Sterling</a>'s <i>Sexing the Body</i> she addresses the birth of children who are intersex. In this case, the standard model (sex/gender distinction) is seen as incorrect with regard to its notion that there are only two sexes, male and female. This is because "complete maleness and complete femaleness represent the extreme ends of a spectrum of possible body types."<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">&#91;110&#93;</a></sup> In other words, Fausto-Sterling argues that sex is a continuum.
</p><p>Rather than viewing sex as a biological construct, there are feminists who view both sex and gender as a <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2021)">who?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>  Fausto-Sterling believes that sex is socially constructed because nature does not decide on who is seen as a male or female physically. Rather, doctors decide what seems to be a "natural" sex for the inhabitants of society. In addition, the gender, behavior, actions, and appearance of males/females is also seen as socially constructed because codes of femininity and masculinity are chosen and deemed fit by society for societal usage.
</p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">feminist philosophers</a> maintain that gender is totally undetermined by sex. See, for example, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dialectic_of_Sex" title="The Dialectic of Sex">The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution</a></i>, a widely influential feminist text.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">&#91;111&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Mari Mikkola has put forward the "Trait/Norm Covariance Model" as a suggested replacement for the sex/gender distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">&#91;112&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">&#91;113&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">&#91;114&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">&#91;115&#93;</a></sup> Arguing that the sex/gender distinction, as formulated in contemporary feminism, implies that "doing away with gender should be feminism's political goal", the model divides by descriptive traits and evaluative norms, rather than by sex and gender. In this model, the term "descriptive traits" includes physical and anatomical traits, roles, and self-conceptions. So for example, "sex traits" (such as having ovaries) and "gender traits" (such as wearing make-up) are both subsumed under the category of descriptive traits, whereas "being feminine" is taken as an evaluative norm. Evaluative norms reflect how descriptive traits are evaluated by external observers, and certain descriptive traits may covary with certain evaluative norms. So for example the trait "having long hair" covaries strongly with feminine norms in some cultures, and less so in others.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Limitations">Limitations</span></h3>
<p>Some feminists go further and argue that neither sex nor gender are strictly binary concepts. <a href="/wiki/Judith_Lorber" title="Judith Lorber">Judith Lorber</a>, for instance, has stated that many conventional indicators of sex are not sufficient to demarcate male from female. For example, not all women lactate, while some men do.<sup id="cite_ref-lorber_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lorber-116">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Kessler" title="Suzanne Kessler">Suzanne Kessler</a>, in a 1990 survey of medical specialists in pediatric intersexuality, found out that when a child was born with XY chromosomes but ambiguous genitalia, its sex was often determined according to the size of its penis.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">&#91;117&#93;</a></sup> Thus, even if the sex/gender distinction holds, Lorber and Kessler suggest that the dichotomies of female/male and masculine/feminine are not themselves exhaustive. Lorber writes, "My perspective goes beyond accepted feminist views that gender is a cultural overlay that modifies physiological sex differences ... I am arguing that bodies differ in many ways physiologically, but they are completely transformed by social practices to fit into the salient categories of a society, the most pervasive of which are 'female' and 'male' and 'women' and 'men.'"<sup id="cite_ref-lorber_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lorber-116">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>Moreover, Lorber has alleged that there exists more diversity within the individual categories of sex and gender—female/male and feminine/masculine, respectively—than between them.<sup id="cite_ref-lorber_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lorber-116">&#91;116&#93;</a></sup> Hence, her fundamental claim is that both sex and gender are social constructions, rather than <a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">natural kinds</a>.
</p><p>A comparable view has been advanced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Linda_Zerilli&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Linda Zerilli (page does not exist)">Linda Zerilli</a>, who writes regarding <a href="/wiki/Monique_Wittig" title="Monique Wittig">Monique Wittig</a>, that she is "critical of the sex/gender dichotomy in much feminist theory because such a dichotomy leaves unquestioned the belief that there is a 'core of nature which resists examination, a relationship excluded from the social in the analysis—a relationship whose characteristic is ineluctability in culture, as well as in nature, and which is the heterosexual relationship.'"<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">&#91;118&#93;</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> also criticizes the sex/gender distinction. Discussing sex as biological fact causes sex to appear natural and politically neutral. However, she argues that "the ostensibly natural facts of sex [are] discursively produced in the service of other political and social interests." Butler concludes, "If the immutable character of sex is contested, perhaps this construct called 'sex' is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all."<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">&#91;119&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Institutional_and_governmental_use">Institutional and governmental use</span></h2>
<p>Governments, corporations, and organizations have varying recognition of, and approaches to the distinction between sex and gender.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="General assertion, whose verification will become clear as additional subsections are added below. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="U.S._Census">U.S. Census</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau" title="United States Census Bureau">United States Census Bureau</a> performs a census of the U.S. population every ten years. The questionnaire asks one question about sex, phrased as "What is person 1's sex?" and provides two checkboxes for the response, labeled "Male" and "Female".<sup id="cite_ref-USCensus-2016_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCensus-2016-120">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup>  An explanatory page explains this question, using the term <i>sex</i>: as "We ask one question about a person's sex to better understand demographic characteristics."<sup id="cite_ref-USCensus-2016_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCensus-2016-120">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup> The U.S. Census has had a question about sex on the census since the <a href="/wiki/1790_United_States_census" title="1790 United States census">1790 census</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USCensus-2016_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCensus-2016-120">&#91;120&#93;</a></sup>  The U.S. Census recognizes the difference between the terms <i>sex</i> and <i>gender</i>, the fact they are often confused or used interchangeably, and may differ across cultures and time, and explains that what the census attempts to measure, is "the sex composition of the population". 
<sup id="cite_ref-USCensus-2020_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCensus-2020-121">&#91;121&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Australian_government">Australian government</span></h3>
<p>The Australian government provides guidelines on sex and gender to the public based on legislation passed in 2013.  The guidelines recognize that "individuals may identify as a gender other than the sex they were assigned at birth, or may not identify as exclusively male or female".<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122">&#91;122&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">&#91;123&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">&#91;124&#93;</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Australian_Bureau_of_Statistics" title="Australian Bureau of Statistics">Australian Bureau of Statistics</a> (ABS) gathers data about the population broken down in various ways, including by sex and gender. They require precise formulations of these terms, and go into some detail about <a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment_at_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex assignment at birth">sex recorded at birth</a>, possible changes in sex assignment later in life, the meaning of <i>gender</i> and how it differs from <i>sex</i>. ABS recognizes the popular confusion among the two terms, and provide descriptions of how to phrase surveys so as to elicit accurate responses for the purposes of the data they collect.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">&#91;125&#93;</a></sup>
</p><p>The government of the state of <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> recognizes a clear distinction between <i>sex</i> and <i>gender</i> providing a nuanced definition of each, including complications involved in <i>sex</i> beyond just sex assigned at birth, and the socially constructed nature of gender, including possible non-binary aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">&#91;126&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="United_Kingdom_government">United Kingdom government</span></h3>
<table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="image"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sex_and_gender_distinction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=">adding to it</a>.  <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The United Kingdom Office for National Statistics (ONS) describes definitions provided by the UK government that make clear distinctions between the "biological aspects" aspects of sex, "generally male or female", and "assigned at birth", while describing gender as a "social construction relating to behaviours and attributes based on labels of masculinity and femininity".<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">&#91;127&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Health_organizations">Health organizations</span></h3>
<table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="image"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sex_and_gender_distinction&amp;action=edit&amp;section=">adding to it</a>.  <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s defines <i>gender</i> as "socially constructed", and <i>sex</i> as characteristics that are "biologically determined", drawing a distinction between the sex categories of male and female, and the genders "girls and boys who grow into men and women".<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">&#91;128&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mental_health_associations">Mental health associations</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> (APA) in their Guide for Working With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Patients (TGNC Guide)<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">&#91;129&#93;</a></sup> has guidance for psychiatrists about gender, sex, and orientation. The TGNC defines <i>gender</i> as comprising two components, that of <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_expression" title="Gender expression">gender expression</a>. They define <i>sex</i> in biological terms, as "anatomical, hormonal, or genetic", and mentions birth assignment of sex based on external genital appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">&#91;130&#93;</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gender_polarization" title="Gender polarization">Gender polarization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences in psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stereotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotyping">Stereotyping</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gender_movement" title="Anti-gender movement">Anti-gender movement</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Virginia-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Virginia_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Virginia_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Prince, Virginia. 2005. "Sex vs. Gender." <i>International Journal of Transgenderism</i>. 8(4).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Carlson-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Carlson_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFNeil_R.,_Carlson2010" class="citation book cs1">Neil R., Carlson (2010). <i>Psychology: The science of behavior. Fourth Canadian edition</i>. <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson</a>. pp.&#160;140–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0205702862" title="Special:BookSources/978-0205702862"><bdi>978-0205702862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Psychology%3A+The+science+of+behavior.+Fourth+Canadian+edition&amp;rft.pages=140-141&amp;rft.pub=Pearson&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0205702862&amp;rft.au=Neil+R.%2C+Carlson&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/genomics/gender/en/">"Gender and Genetics"</a>. <i>WHO</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=WHO&amp;rft.atitle=Gender+and+Genetics&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fgenomics%2Fgender%2Fen%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://orwh.od.nih.gov/sex-gender">"Sex &amp; Gender"</a>. <i>Office of Research on Women's Health</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Office+of+Research+on+Women%27s+Health&amp;rft.atitle=Sex+%26+Gender&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Forwh.od.nih.gov%2Fsex-gender&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-udry-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-udry_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFUdry1994" class="citation journal cs1">Udry, J. Richard (November 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unc.edu/courses/2006fall/econ/586/001/Readings/Udry_Nature_Gender.pdf">"The Nature of Gender"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Demography</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 561–573. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2061790">10.2307/2061790</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2061790">2061790</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7890091">7890091</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20161211012757/https://www.unc.edu/courses/2006fall/econ/586/001/Readings/Udry_Nature_Gender.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Demography&amp;rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Gender&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=561-573&amp;rft.date=1994-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7890091&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2061790%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2061790&amp;rft.aulast=Udry&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+Richard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unc.edu%2Fcourses%2F2006fall%2Fecon%2F586%2F001%2FReadings%2FUdry_Nature_Gender.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-haig-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-haig_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haig_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haig_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHaig2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Haig_(biologist)" title="David Haig (biologist)">Haig, David</a> (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110525090802/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/Publications_files/04InexorableRise.pdf">"The Inexorable Rise of Gender and the Decline of Sex: Social Change in Academic Titles, 1945–2001"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Archives of Sexual Behavior</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 87–96. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a>&#160;<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.359.9143">10.1.1.359.9143</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AASEB.0000014323.56281.0d">10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014323.56281.0d</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15146141">15146141</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7005542">7005542</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/04inexorablerise.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Sexual+Behavior&amp;rft.atitle=The+Inexorable+Rise+of+Gender+and+the+Decline+of+Sex%3A+Social+Change+in+Academic+Titles%2C+1945%E2%80%932001&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=87-96&amp;rft.date=2004-04&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.359.9143%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7005542%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15146141&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FB%3AASEB.0000014323.56281.0d&amp;rft.aulast=Haig&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oeb.harvard.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fhaig%2Fpublications_files%2F04inexorablerise.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKimmel2017" class="citation book cs1">Kimmel, Michael S. (2017). <i>The gendered society</i> (Sixth&#160;ed.). New York. p.&#160;3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-026031-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-026031-6"><bdi>978-0-19-026031-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/949553050">949553050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+gendered+society&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pages=3&amp;rft.edition=Sixth&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F949553050&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-026031-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kimmel&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-socialsciencedictionary-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-socialsciencedictionary_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110202125938/http://www.socialsciencedictionary.com/GENDER">"GENDER"</a>. Social Science Dictionary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.socialsciencedictionary.com/GENDER">the original</a> on 2 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=GENDER&amp;rft.pub=Social+Science+Dictionary&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.socialsciencedictionary.com%2FGENDER&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-pearsonhighered-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pearsonhighered_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFLindsey,_Linda_L.2010" class="citation book cs1">Lindsey, Linda L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150405145514/http://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/hip/us/hip_us_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/0132448300.pdf">"Ch. 1. The Sociology of gender"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective</i>. Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-244830-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-244830-7"><bdi>978-0-13-244830-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/hip/us/hip_us_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/0132448300.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 5 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Ch.+1.+The+Sociology+of+gender&amp;rft.btitle=Gender+Roles%3A+A+Sociological+Perspective&amp;rft.pub=Pearson&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-13-244830-7&amp;rft.au=Lindsey%2C+Linda+L.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pearsonhighered.com%2Fassets%2Fhip%2Fus%2Fhip_us_pearsonhighered%2Fsamplechapter%2F0132448300.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKimmel20173-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKimmel20173_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimmel2017">Kimmel 2017</a>, p.&#160;3.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPaludi2008" class="citation book cs1">Paludi, Michele Antoinette (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rf9rAy1yCHkC&amp;q=Both+physiologists+and+biologists+agree+that+gender+is+distinct+from+sex.&amp;pg=PA153"><i>The Psychology of Women at Work: Challenges and Solutions for Our Female Workforce</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p.&#160;153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99677-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-99677-2"><bdi>978-0-275-99677-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Psychology+of+Women+at+Work%3A+Challenges+and+Solutions+for+Our+Female+Workforce&amp;rft.pages=153&amp;rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-275-99677-2&amp;rft.aulast=Paludi&amp;rft.aufirst=Michele+Antoinette&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drf9rAy1yCHkC%26q%3DBoth%2Bphysiologists%2Band%2Bbiologists%2Bagree%2Bthat%2Bgender%2Bis%2Bdistinct%2Bfrom%2Bsex.%26pg%3DPA153&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFO&#39;Halloran2020" class="citation book cs1">O'Halloran, Kerry (2020). <i>Sexual orientation, gender identity and international human rights law: common law perspectives</i>. London. pp.&#160;22–28, 328–329. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-44265-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-44265-0"><bdi>978-0-429-44265-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1110674742">1110674742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Sexual+orientation%2C+gender+identity+and+international+human+rights+law%3A+common+law+perspectives&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pages=22-28%2C+328-329&amp;rft.date=2020&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1110674742&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-429-44265-0&amp;rft.aulast=O%27Halloran&amp;rft.aufirst=Kerry&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/health-determinants/gender/gender-definitions">"Gender: definitions"</a>. <i>www.euro.who.int</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-08-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=www.euro.who.int&amp;rft.atitle=Gender%3A+definitions&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.euro.who.int%2Fen%2Fhealth-topics%2Fhealth-determinants%2Fgender%2Fgender-definitions&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBhargava2021-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBhargava2021_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBhargava2021">Bhargava 2021</a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFBhargava2021 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MONEY J. Hermaphroditism, gender and precocity in hyperadrenocorticism: psychologic findings. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1955 Jun;96(6):253-64. PMID 14378807.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDowning2014" class="citation book cs1">Downing, Lisa (19 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/902609808"><i>Fuckology&#160;: critical essays on John Money's diagnostic concepts</i></a>. p.&#160;21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18658-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-18658-0"><bdi>978-0-226-18658-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/902609808">902609808</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fuckology+%3A+critical+essays+on+John+Money%27s+diagnostic+concepts&amp;rft.pages=21&amp;rft.date=2014-12-19&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F902609808&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-226-18658-0&amp;rft.aulast=Downing&amp;rft.aufirst=Lisa&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F902609808&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBentley1945" class="citation journal cs1">Bentley, Madison (April 1945). "Sanity and Hazard in Childhood". <i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>. <b>58</b> (2): 212–246. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1417846">10.2307/1417846</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9556">0002-9556</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1417846">1417846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychology&amp;rft.atitle=Sanity+and+Hazard+in+Childhood&amp;rft.volume=58&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=212-246&amp;rft.date=1945-04&amp;rft.issn=0002-9556&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1417846%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1417846&amp;rft.aulast=Bentley&amp;rft.aufirst=Madison&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHorleyClarke2016" class="citation book cs1">Horley, James; Clarke, Jan (2016-07-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VyGpDAAAQBAJ"><i>Experience, Meaning, and Identity in Sexuality: A Psychosocial Theory of Sexual Stability and Change</i></a>. Springer. p.&#160;24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-40096-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-40096-3"><bdi>978-1-137-40096-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Experience%2C+Meaning%2C+and+Identity+in+Sexuality%3A+A+Psychosocial+Theory+of+Sexual+Stability+and+Change&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2016-07-11&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-137-40096-3&amp;rft.aulast=Horley&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft.au=Clarke%2C+Jan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVyGpDAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-udry2-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-udry2_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-udry2_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFUdry1994" class="citation journal cs1">Udry, J. Richard (November 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2061790">"The Nature of Gender"</a>. <i>Demography</i>. <b>31</b> (4): 561–573. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2061790">10.2307/2061790</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2061790">2061790</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7890091">7890091</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Demography&amp;rft.atitle=The+Nature+of+Gender&amp;rft.volume=31&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=561-573&amp;rft.date=1994-11&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7890091&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2061790%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2061790&amp;rft.aulast=Udry&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+Richard&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2307%252F2061790&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Aldous-1967-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aldous-1967_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aldous-1967_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFAldous1967" class="citation book cs1">Aldous, Joan (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uMXoRsTt6ioC"><i>International bibliography of research in marriage and the family: 1965-1972</i></a>. University of Minnesota Press. pp.&#160;1–508. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-1037-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-1037-6"><bdi>978-1-4529-1037-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/421999249">421999249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=International+bibliography+of+research+in+marriage+and+the+family%3A+1965-1972&amp;rft.pages=1-508&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&amp;rft.date=1967&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F421999249&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4529-1037-6&amp;rft.aulast=Aldous&amp;rft.aufirst=Joan&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuMXoRsTt6ioC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-haig2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-haig2_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-haig2_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHaig2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Haig_(biologist)" title="David Haig (biologist)">Haig, David</a> (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120615160110/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/Publications_files/04InexorableRise.pdf">"The Inexorable Rise of Gender and the Decline of Sex: Social Change in Academic Titles, 1945–2001"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Archives of Sexual Behavior</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 87–96. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a>&#160;<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.359.9143">10.1.1.359.9143</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AASEB.0000014323.56281.0d">10.1023/B:ASEB.0000014323.56281.0d</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15146141">15146141</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7005542">7005542</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/haig/publications_files/04inexorablerise.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Sexual+Behavior&amp;rft.atitle=The+Inexorable+Rise+of+Gender+and+the+Decline+of+Sex%3A+Social+Change+in+Academic+Titles%2C+1945%E2%80%932001&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=87-96&amp;rft.date=2004-04&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.359.9143%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7005542%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15146141&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FB%3AASEB.0000014323.56281.0d&amp;rft.aulast=Haig&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oeb.harvard.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fhaig%2Fpublications_files%2F04inexorablerise.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMoney1994" class="citation journal cs1">Money, John (September 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00926239408403428">"The Concept of gender identity disorder in childhood and adolescence after 39 years"</a>. <i>Journal of Sex &amp; Marital Therapy</i>. <b>20</b> (3): 163–177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00926239408403428">10.1080/00926239408403428</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0092-623X">0092-623X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7996589">7996589</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Sex+%26+Marital+Therapy&amp;rft.atitle=The+Concept+of+gender+identity+disorder+in+childhood+and+adolescence+after+39+years&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=163-177&amp;rft.date=1994-09&amp;rft.issn=0092-623X&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7996589&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00926239408403428&amp;rft.aulast=Money&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F00926239408403428&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Daly_(professor)" title="Martin Daly (professor)">Daly, M</a>. &amp; <a href="/wiki/Margo_Wilson" title="Margo Wilson">Wilson, M</a>. (1983). Sex, evolution and behavior. Monterey: Brooks Cole</span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFromhageJennions2016" class="citation journal cs1">Fromhage, Lutz; Jennions, Michael D. (2016-08-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4992156">"Coevolution of parental investment and sexually selected traits drives sex-role divergence"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 12517. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatCo...712517F">2016NatCo...712517F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms12517">10.1038/ncomms12517</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4992156">4992156</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27535478">27535478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&amp;rft.atitle=Coevolution+of+parental+investment+and+sexually+selected+traits+drives+sex-role+divergence&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=12517&amp;rft.date=2016-08-18&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4992156%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatCo...712517F&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27535478&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms12517&amp;rft.issn=2041-1723&amp;rft.aulast=Fromhage&amp;rft.aufirst=Lutz&amp;rft.au=Jennions%2C+Michael+D.&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4992156&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWhitfield2004" class="citation journal cs1">Whitfield, John (2004-06-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC423151">"Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Sexes"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>2</b> (6): e183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020183">10.1371/journal.pbio.0020183</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1545-7885">1545-7885</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC423151">423151</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15208728">15208728</a>. <q>One thing biologists do agree on is that males and females count as different sexes. And they also agree that the main difference between the two is gamete size: males make lots of small gametes—sperm in animals, pollen in plants—and females produce a few big eggs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&amp;rft.atitle=Everything+You+Always+Wanted+to+Know+about+Sexes&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.pages=e183&amp;rft.date=2004-06-15&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC423151%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=1545-7885&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15208728&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020183&amp;rft.aulast=Whitfield&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC423151&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBeukeboomPerrin2014" class="citation book cs1">Beukeboom, Leo W.; Perrin, Nicolas (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7yrnAwAAQBAJ"><i>The Evolution of Sex Determination</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965714-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965714-8"><bdi>978-0-19-965714-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Sex+Determination&amp;rft.pages=24&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-965714-8&amp;rft.aulast=Beukeboom&amp;rft.aufirst=Leo+W.&amp;rft.au=Perrin%2C+Nicolas&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7yrnAwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFMajerus2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Majerus" title="Michael Majerus">Majerus, M. E. N.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vDHOYPQ2mmYC&amp;q=gamete+size+main+difference&amp;pg=PA9"><i>Sex Wars: Genes, Bacteria, and Biased Sex Ratios</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p.&#160;9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00981-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00981-0"><bdi>978-0-691-00981-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Sex+Wars%3A+Genes%2C+Bacteria%2C+and+Biased+Sex+Ratios&amp;rft.pages=9&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-00981-0&amp;rft.aulast=Majerus&amp;rft.aufirst=M.+E.+N.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvDHOYPQ2mmYC%26q%3Dgamete%2Bsize%2Bmain%2Bdifference%26pg%3DPA9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kumar-201922-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kumar-201922_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFKumarMeenaSwapnil2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kumar R, Meena M, Swapnil P (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201104065418/https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1">"Anisogamy"</a>.  In Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior</i>. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp.&#160;1–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1">10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_340-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-47829-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-47829-6"><bdi>978-3-319-47829-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1">the original</a> on 4 November 2020. <q>Anisogamy can be defined as a mode of sexual reproduction in which fusing gametes, formed by participating parents, are dissimilar in size.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Anisogamy&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Animal+Cognition+and+Behavior&amp;rft.place=Cham&amp;rft.pages=1-5&amp;rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&amp;rft.date=2019&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-319-47829-6&amp;rft.aulast=Kumar&amp;rft.aufirst=R&amp;rft.au=Meena%2C+M&amp;rft.au=Swapnil%2C+P&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Freferenceworkentry%2F10.1007%252F978-3-319-47829-6_340-1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFuscoMinelli2019" class="citation book cs1">Fusco G, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Minelli" title="Alessandro Minelli">Minelli A</a> (2019-10-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AKGsDwAAQBAJ&amp;q=The+Biology+of+Reproduction+PAGE+112"><i>The Biology of Reproduction</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp.&#160;111–113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-49985-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-49985-9"><bdi>978-1-108-49985-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210401100101/https://books.google.com/books?id=AKGsDwAAQBAJ&amp;newbks=0&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=The+Biology+of+Reproduction+PAGE+112&amp;hl=en">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Biology+of+Reproduction&amp;rft.pages=111-113&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2019-10-10&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-108-49985-9&amp;rft.aulast=Fusco&amp;rft.aufirst=G&amp;rft.au=Minelli%2C+A&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAKGsDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BBiology%2Bof%2BReproduction%2BPAGE%2B112&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBreedMoore2015" class="citation book cs1">Breed, Michael D.; Moore, Janice (2015-05-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ex8tBAAAQBAJ&amp;q=Evolution+of+Sex:+Why+Some+Animals+Are+Called+Male+and+Others+Female&amp;pg=PT374">"Mating Systems"</a>. <i>Animal Behavior</i>. Academic Press. pp.&#160;360–365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-801683-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-801683-1"><bdi>978-0-12-801683-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Mating+Systems&amp;rft.btitle=Animal+Behavior&amp;rft.pages=360-365&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2015-05-16&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-12-801683-1&amp;rft.aulast=Breed&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&amp;rft.au=Moore%2C+Janice&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEx8tBAAAQBAJ%26q%3DEvolution%2Bof%2BSex%3A%2BWhy%2BSome%2BAnimals%2BAre%2BCalled%2BMale%2Band%2BOthers%2BFemale%26pg%3DPT374&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:92-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:92_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFRoyleSmisethKölliker2012" class="citation book cs1">Royle, Nick J.; Smiseth, Per T.; Kölliker, Mathias (2012-08-09).  <a href="/wiki/Hanna_Kokko" title="Hanna Kokko">Kokko, Hanna</a>; Jennions, Michael (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K-EUDAAAQBAJ&amp;q=Sex+differences+in+parental+care&amp;pg=PR5"><i>The Evolution of Parental Care</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969257-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969257-6"><bdi>978-0-19-969257-6</bdi></a>. <q>The answer is that there is an agreement by convention: individuals producing the smaller of the two gamete types-sperm or pollen- are males, and those producing larger gametes-eggs or ovules- are females.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Parental+Care&amp;rft.pages=103&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2012-08-09&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-969257-6&amp;rft.aulast=Royle&amp;rft.aufirst=Nick+J.&amp;rft.au=Smiseth%2C+Per+T.&amp;rft.au=K%C3%B6lliker%2C+Mathias&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK-EUDAAAQBAJ%26q%3DSex%2Bdifferences%2Bin%2Bparental%2Bcare%26pg%3DPR5&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Dawkins-1989-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins-1989_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFDawkins1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WkHO9HI7koEC&amp;pg=PA141">"9 Battle of the Sexes"</a>. <i>The Selfish Gene</i>. Oxford University Press. p.&#160;141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286092-7"><bdi>978-0-19-286092-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/895773595">895773595</a>. <q>However, there is one fundamental feature of the sexes which can be used to label males as males, and females as females, throughout animals and plants. This is that the sex cells or 'gametes' of males are much smaller and more numerous than the gametes of females. This is true whether we are dealing with animals or plants. One group of individuals has large sex cells, and it is convenient to use the word female for them. The other group, which it is convenient to call male, has small sex cells. The difference is especially pronounced in reptiles and in birds, where a single egg cell is big enough and nutritious enough to feed a developing baby for several weeks. Even in humans, where the egg is microscopic, it is still many times larger than the sperm. As we shall see, it is possible to interpret all the other differences between the sexes as stemming from this one basic difference.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=9+Battle+of+the+Sexes&amp;rft.btitle=The+Selfish+Gene&amp;rft.pages=141&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F895773595&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-286092-7&amp;rft.aulast=Dawkins&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWkHO9HI7koEC%26pg%3DPA141&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASex+and+gender+distinction" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBhargavaArnoldBangasserDenton2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bhargava, Aditi; Arnold, Arthur P; Bangasser, Debra A; Denton, Kate M; Gupta, Arpana; Hilliard Krause, Lucinda M; Mayer, Emeran A; McCarthy, Margaret; Miller, Walter L; Raznahan, Armin; Verma, Ragini (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnaa034">"Considering Sex as a Biological Variable in Basic and Clinical Studies: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement"</a>. <i>Endocrine Reviews</i>. <b>42</b> (3): 219–258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fendrev%2Fbnaa034">10.1210/endrev/bnaa034</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0163-769X">0163-769X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a>&#160;8348944. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33704446">33704446</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Endocrine+Reviews&amp;rft.atitle=Considering+Sex+as+a+Biological+Variable+in+Basic+and+Clinical+Studies%3A+An+Endocrine+Society+Scientific+Statement&amp;rft.volume=42&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=219-258&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8348944%23id-name%3DPMC&amp;rft.issn=0163-769X&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33704446&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1210%2Fendrev%2Fbnaa034&amp;rft.aulast=Bhargava&amp;rft.aufirst=Aditi&amp;rft.au=Arnold%2C+Arthur+P&amp;rft.au=Bangasser%2C+Debra+A&amp;rft.au=Denton%2C+Kate+M&amp;rft.au=Gupta%2C+Arpana&amp;rft.au=Hilliard+Krause%2C+Lucinda+M&amp;rft.au=Mayer%2C+Emeran+A&amp;rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Margaret&amp;rft.au=Mille

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